Tuesday, April 28, 2009
Subordinators
Subordinators have an interesting effect on words in a sentence.
A clause (S +V) without a subordinator can stand alone as a complete statement.
I went to the store yesterday. (Complete statement)
However, when a subordinator is added, the statement seems incomplete.
When I went to the store yesterday. (Well, what happened?)
The subordinating clause becomes dependent on something else to complete its meaning:
When I went to the store yesterday, I saw an old friend. (Idea is complete)
Subordinating or “dependent” clauses can occur at the beginning or end of a sentence. When used at the beginning of a sentence, a comma is necessary after the clause itself.
S + V although S + V
Although S + V , S + V
In English, the subordinator always comes before the subject and verb in a clause.
I went to the grocery store after, I stopped at the bank. (Incorrect)
After I went to the grocery store, I stopped at the bank. (Correct)
Subordinators and coordinators should not be used in the same sentence to introduce clauses. Choose one or the other, but do not use both together.
Although Nina won the prize, but she was not happy. (Wrong)
Although Nina won the prize, she was not happy. (Correct)
Nina won the prize, but she was not happy. (Also correct)
The most common subordinators are:
although, even though, because, since*, so that,when, while, before*, after*, whenever, wherever, anywhere, if, unless, whether…[or not]as, as [adjective] as, whereas.
A clause (S +V) without a subordinator can stand alone as a complete statement.
I went to the store yesterday. (Complete statement)
However, when a subordinator is added, the statement seems incomplete.
When I went to the store yesterday. (Well, what happened?)
The subordinating clause becomes dependent on something else to complete its meaning:
When I went to the store yesterday, I saw an old friend. (Idea is complete)
Subordinating or “dependent” clauses can occur at the beginning or end of a sentence. When used at the beginning of a sentence, a comma is necessary after the clause itself.
S + V although S + V
Although S + V , S + V
In English, the subordinator always comes before the subject and verb in a clause.
I went to the grocery store after, I stopped at the bank. (Incorrect)
After I went to the grocery store, I stopped at the bank. (Correct)
Subordinators and coordinators should not be used in the same sentence to introduce clauses. Choose one or the other, but do not use both together.
Although Nina won the prize, but she was not happy. (Wrong)
Although Nina won the prize, she was not happy. (Correct)
Nina won the prize, but she was not happy. (Also correct)
The most common subordinators are:
although, even though, because, since*, so that,when, while, before*, after*, whenever, wherever, anywhere, if, unless, whether…[or not]as, as [adjective] as, whereas.
Dependent clause
A dependent clause (also embedded clause, subordinate clause) cannot stand alone as a sentence. In itself, a dependent clause does not express a complete thought; therefore, it is usually attached to an independent clause. Although a dependent clause contains a subject and a predicate, it sounds incomplete when standing alone. Some grammarians use the term subordinate clause as a synonym for dependent clause, but in the majority of grammars, subordinate clause refers only to adverbial dependent clauses.
A noun clause can be used the same way as a noun. It can be a subject, predicate nominative, direct object, appositive, indirect object, or object of the preposition. Some of the words that introduce noun clauses are that, whether, who, why, whom, what, how, when, whoever, where, and whomever. Notice that some of these words also introduce adjective and adverbial clauses. To check whether a clause is a noun clause, try substituting the appropriate pronoun (he, she, it, or they).
Examples:
I know who said that. (I know it.)
Whoever said it is wrong. (He is wrong.)
Sometimes a noun clause is used without the introductory word.
Example:
I know that he is here.
I know he is here. (without "that")
Adjective clause
An adjective clause—also called an adjectival or relative clause—will meet three requirements. First, it will contain a subject and verb. Next, it will begin with a relative pronoun [who, whom, whose, that, or which] or a relative adverb [when, where, or why]. Finally, it will function as an adjective, answering questions such as: What kind? How many? or Which one?
The adjective clause will follow one of these two patterns:
Relative Pronoun [or Relative Adverb] + Subject + Verb = Incomplete Thought
Relative Pronoun [Functioning as Subject] + Verb = Incomplete Thought
Non-finite dependent clauses
Dependent clauses may be headed by an infinitive or other non-finite verb form, which in linguistics is called deranked. In these cases, the subject of the dependent clause may take a non-nominative form.
Examples:
I want him to vanish.
I saw you wandering around.
Dependent clauses are classified further into:
-Noun clause
-Adverbial clause
-Adjective clause
Noun clause
A noun clause can be used the same way as a noun. It can be a subject, predicate nominative, direct object, appositive, indirect object, or object of the preposition. Some of the words that introduce noun clauses are that, whether, who, why, whom, what, how, when, whoever, where, and whomever. Notice that some of these words also introduce adjective and adverbial clauses. To check whether a clause is a noun clause, try substituting the appropriate pronoun (he, she, it, or they).
Examples:
I know who said that. (I know it.)
Whoever said it is wrong. (He is wrong.)
Sometimes a noun clause is used without the introductory word.
Example:
I know that he is here.
I know he is here. (without "that")
Adjective clause
An adjective clause—also called an adjectival or relative clause—will meet three requirements. First, it will contain a subject and verb. Next, it will begin with a relative pronoun [who, whom, whose, that, or which] or a relative adverb [when, where, or why]. Finally, it will function as an adjective, answering questions such as: What kind? How many? or Which one?
The adjective clause will follow one of these two patterns:
Relative Pronoun [or Relative Adverb] + Subject + Verb = Incomplete Thought
Relative Pronoun [Functioning as Subject] + Verb = Incomplete Thought
Non-finite dependent clauses
Dependent clauses may be headed by an infinitive or other non-finite verb form, which in linguistics is called deranked. In these cases, the subject of the dependent clause may take a non-nominative form.
Examples:
I want him to vanish.
I saw you wandering around.
Independent Clause
An independent clause (or main clause, matrix clause) is a clause that can stand by itself as a grammatically viable simple sentence. Independent clauses express a complete thought and contain a subject and a predicate. Multiple independent clauses can be joined by using a semicolon or a comma plus a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so).
Examples
I love dogs. Sentence
I drive a bus. Simple Sentence
I am a bus driver, and my wife is a lawyer. (Compound sentence made up of two independent clauses: I am a bus driver and my wife is a lawyer)
I want to be an astronaut, but I need to receive my Astronaut Badge. (Compound sentence made up of two independent clauses: I want to be an astronaut and I need to receive my Astronaut Badge)
Go to the store, and get me a carton of milk. (Compound sentence) (Though a subject is not visible, in English the subject of an imperative is considered to be the pronoun 'you')
Examples
I love dogs. Sentence
I drive a bus. Simple Sentence
I am a bus driver, and my wife is a lawyer. (Compound sentence made up of two independent clauses: I am a bus driver and my wife is a lawyer)
I want to be an astronaut, but I need to receive my Astronaut Badge. (Compound sentence made up of two independent clauses: I want to be an astronaut and I need to receive my Astronaut Badge)
Go to the store, and get me a carton of milk. (Compound sentence) (Though a subject is not visible, in English the subject of an imperative is considered to be the pronoun 'you')
The Clause
What is a clause?
Definition
A clause is a grammatical unit that
Includes, at minimum, a predicate and an explicit or implied subject, and
expresses a proportion.
Examples (English)
The following example sentence contains two clauses:
It is cold, although the sun is shining.
The main clause is it is cold and the subordinate clause is although the sun is shining.
Kinds
Here are some kinds of clauses:
What is an adverbial clause?
What is a coordinate clause?
What is an equative clause?
What is an existential clause?
What is a final clause?
What is a finite clause?
What is a main clause?
What is a marking clause?
What is a medial clause?
What is a nominal clause?
What is a nonfinite clause?
What is a reference clause?
What is a relative clause?
What is a subordinate clause?
Definition
A clause is a grammatical unit that
Includes, at minimum, a predicate and an explicit or implied subject, and
expresses a proportion.
Examples (English)
The following example sentence contains two clauses:
It is cold, although the sun is shining.
The main clause is it is cold and the subordinate clause is although the sun is shining.
Kinds
Here are some kinds of clauses:
What is an adverbial clause?
What is a coordinate clause?
What is an equative clause?
What is an existential clause?
What is a final clause?
What is a finite clause?
What is a main clause?
What is a marking clause?
What is a medial clause?
What is a nominal clause?
What is a nonfinite clause?
What is a reference clause?
What is a relative clause?
What is a subordinate clause?
Unit II
What Is A Sentence?.
A sentence is a grammatical unit that is composed of one or more clauses.
Kinds Of Sentences
Declarative: A declarative sentence makes a statement. This kind of sentence ends with a period
Interrogative: An interrogative sentence asks a question. This type of sentence ends with a question mark(?).
Exclamatoty: An exclamatory sentence shows strong feeling. This type of sentence ends with a exclamarion mark(!).
Imperative: An imperative sentence gives a command.
A sentence is a grammatical unit that is composed of one or more clauses.
Kinds Of Sentences
Declarative: A declarative sentence makes a statement. This kind of sentence ends with a period
Interrogative: An interrogative sentence asks a question. This type of sentence ends with a question mark(?).
Exclamatoty: An exclamatory sentence shows strong feeling. This type of sentence ends with a exclamarion mark(!).
Imperative: An imperative sentence gives a command.
Reading Strategies
Methods used in reading to determine the meaning of a text.
Annolighting This active reading strategy links concept of highlighting key words and phrases in a text and annotating those highlights with marginal notes.
Annotating Annotating a text is an effective strategy to promote active and critical reading skills; this strategy provides a number useful acronyms that students can use to remember different elements of writer's craft when reading and annotating a text.
AnticipationGuide Anticipation guides are typically used as a pre-reading strategy and help to engage students in thought and discussion about ideas and concepts that they will encounter in the text.
Checking out the Framework This strategy provides students with suggestions for previewing texts of different genre in order to read strategically based on their purposes for reading the text.
Collaborative Annotation This strategy engages students in a process of co-constructing their interpretations of a text through a collaborative annotation activity.
ConversationsAcross Time This reading strategy helps students to develop deeper insights by making connections between and across texts from different time periods in response to a common topic, theme, or essential question.
Dense QuestioningThe dense questioning strategy can be used to help students pose increasingly dense questions as they make text-to-text, text-to-self, text-to-world connections.
Frame of Reference The frame of reference strategy teaches students how to create a mental context for reading a passage; this is accomplished by helping students to consider what they know about a topic and how they know what they know.
InferentialReading The inferential reading strategy provides a list of the various types of inferences that readers make while reading even seemingly straightforward text; recognizing that there are different types of inferences helps students to analyze text more consciously and strategically.
InteractiveNotebook This highly adaptable strategy encourages students to use a two-column note-taking strategy. In the right column, they take notes to synthesize essential ideas and information from a text, presentation, film etc.; in the left-hand column, they interact with the content in any way they choose (personal connections, illustrations, etc.).
Key Concept Synthesis The key concept synthesis strategy helps students to identify the most important ideas in a text, put those ideas into their own words, and then make connections between among these important ideas
Listening to Voice This strategy helps students to analyze and interpret writer's voice through the annotation of a passage, with particular emphasis on dictions, tone, syntax, unity, coherence, and audience.
Metaphor Analysis This adaptable strategy teaches students how to analyze a complex metaphor and substantiate interpretive claims using textual evidence.
ParallelNote-taking The parallel note-taking strategy teaches students to recognize different organizational patterns for informational texts and then develop a note-taking strategy that parallels the organization of the text.
QAR:Question-Answer Relationships The QAR strategy helps students to identify the four Question-Answer Relationships that they are likely to encounter as they read texts and attempt to answer questions about what they have read. These include "right there" questions, "think and search" questions, "author and you" questions, and "on my own" questions.
Questions Only The questions only strategy teaches students how to pose questions about the texts they are reading and encourages them to read actively as they work to answer the questions they have posed.
RAFT This is a flexible post-reading strategy that helps students to analyze and reflect upon their reading through persona writing. Based on suggestions provided by the teacher or generated by the class, students choose a Role, an Audience, a Format, and a Topic on which to write in response to their reading.
ReciprocalTeaching The reciprocal teaching strategy enables students to activate four different comprehension strategies - predicting, questioning, clarifying, summarizing - which they apply collaboratively to help each other understand a text they are reading.
Sociograms A sociogram is a visual representation of the relationships among characters in a literary text. Students can make use of pictures, symbols, shapes, colors, and line styles to illustrate these relationships, to understand the traits of each character, and to analyze the emerging primary and secondary conflicts.
Think Aloud Skillful readers unconsciously use a range of strategies to make meaning from text. The think aloud strategy involves modeling these strategies by "thinking aloud" while reading and responding to a text. By making explicit for students what is implicit for more expert readers, it becomes possible for students develop and apply these strategies themselves.
Transactional Reading Journal The name of this reading strategy is inspired by the work of Louise Rosenblatt (1978), who explained reading as a transactional process that occurs between the text and the reader. The Transactional Reading Journal builds on this concept (via Jude Ellis) and provides a flexible framework for engaging students in a process of active and personally meaningful interaction with a text.
Writer's Craft Seminar This reading strategy teaches students how to analyze text through close reading in order to formulate a interpretive thesis that is supported through assertions and textual evidence. Students present their interpretations to the class through a seminar format.
Annolighting This active reading strategy links concept of highlighting key words and phrases in a text and annotating those highlights with marginal notes.
Annotating Annotating a text is an effective strategy to promote active and critical reading skills; this strategy provides a number useful acronyms that students can use to remember different elements of writer's craft when reading and annotating a text.
AnticipationGuide Anticipation guides are typically used as a pre-reading strategy and help to engage students in thought and discussion about ideas and concepts that they will encounter in the text.
Checking out the Framework This strategy provides students with suggestions for previewing texts of different genre in order to read strategically based on their purposes for reading the text.
Collaborative Annotation This strategy engages students in a process of co-constructing their interpretations of a text through a collaborative annotation activity.
ConversationsAcross Time This reading strategy helps students to develop deeper insights by making connections between and across texts from different time periods in response to a common topic, theme, or essential question.
Dense QuestioningThe dense questioning strategy can be used to help students pose increasingly dense questions as they make text-to-text, text-to-self, text-to-world connections.
Frame of Reference The frame of reference strategy teaches students how to create a mental context for reading a passage; this is accomplished by helping students to consider what they know about a topic and how they know what they know.
InferentialReading The inferential reading strategy provides a list of the various types of inferences that readers make while reading even seemingly straightforward text; recognizing that there are different types of inferences helps students to analyze text more consciously and strategically.
InteractiveNotebook This highly adaptable strategy encourages students to use a two-column note-taking strategy. In the right column, they take notes to synthesize essential ideas and information from a text, presentation, film etc.; in the left-hand column, they interact with the content in any way they choose (personal connections, illustrations, etc.).
Key Concept Synthesis The key concept synthesis strategy helps students to identify the most important ideas in a text, put those ideas into their own words, and then make connections between among these important ideas
Listening to Voice This strategy helps students to analyze and interpret writer's voice through the annotation of a passage, with particular emphasis on dictions, tone, syntax, unity, coherence, and audience.
Metaphor Analysis This adaptable strategy teaches students how to analyze a complex metaphor and substantiate interpretive claims using textual evidence.
ParallelNote-taking The parallel note-taking strategy teaches students to recognize different organizational patterns for informational texts and then develop a note-taking strategy that parallels the organization of the text.
QAR:Question-Answer Relationships The QAR strategy helps students to identify the four Question-Answer Relationships that they are likely to encounter as they read texts and attempt to answer questions about what they have read. These include "right there" questions, "think and search" questions, "author and you" questions, and "on my own" questions.
Questions Only The questions only strategy teaches students how to pose questions about the texts they are reading and encourages them to read actively as they work to answer the questions they have posed.
RAFT This is a flexible post-reading strategy that helps students to analyze and reflect upon their reading through persona writing. Based on suggestions provided by the teacher or generated by the class, students choose a Role, an Audience, a Format, and a Topic on which to write in response to their reading.
ReciprocalTeaching The reciprocal teaching strategy enables students to activate four different comprehension strategies - predicting, questioning, clarifying, summarizing - which they apply collaboratively to help each other understand a text they are reading.
Sociograms A sociogram is a visual representation of the relationships among characters in a literary text. Students can make use of pictures, symbols, shapes, colors, and line styles to illustrate these relationships, to understand the traits of each character, and to analyze the emerging primary and secondary conflicts.
Think Aloud Skillful readers unconsciously use a range of strategies to make meaning from text. The think aloud strategy involves modeling these strategies by "thinking aloud" while reading and responding to a text. By making explicit for students what is implicit for more expert readers, it becomes possible for students develop and apply these strategies themselves.
Transactional Reading Journal The name of this reading strategy is inspired by the work of Louise Rosenblatt (1978), who explained reading as a transactional process that occurs between the text and the reader. The Transactional Reading Journal builds on this concept (via Jude Ellis) and provides a flexible framework for engaging students in a process of active and personally meaningful interaction with a text.
Writer's Craft Seminar This reading strategy teaches students how to analyze text through close reading in order to formulate a interpretive thesis that is supported through assertions and textual evidence. Students present their interpretations to the class through a seminar format.
Postmodifier
A modifier which is placed after its head (thus a function at phrase level). The term 'postmodifier' is most often associated with noun phrases, but can also apply to adjective phrases and adverb phrases. Postmodifiers of nouns may be realized as prepositional phrases (man of the year, ticket to London), as relative clauses (a man who wants a wife, a ticket that cost a fortune), as participle clauses (the man observed near the scene of the crime , the man lurking in the background), or occasionally, a postposed adjective (the man responsible, the tickets available ).
Premodifier
A modifier placed in front of its head. A premodifier in a noun phrase is typically realized as an adjective, and denotes a quality/property of the head. Examples: the red apple, a definite answer, her impressive performance, X-rated films. Premodifiers of nouns can also be realized as nouns, and sometimes as phrases.
Determiners
A determiner is a noun modifier that expresses the reference of a noun or noun phrase, including quantity, rather than its attributes as expressed by adjectives. This word class, or part of speech, is defined in some languages, including English, though most English dictionaries still classify determiners under other parts of speech. Determiners usually include articles, and may include items like demonstratives, possessive determiners, quantifiers, and cardinal numbers, depending on the language.
English determiners
Determiners, in English, form a closed class of words that number (exclusive of cardinal numerals) about 50 and include:
Articles: a, an, the
Demonstratives: this, that, these, those, which, etc.
Quantifiers: all, few, many, several, some, every, each, any, no, etc.
Cardinal Numbers: one, two, fifty, etc. Possessive determiners (also known by several other names, including "possessive adjectives" and "possessive pronouns"): my, your, his, etc. Personal Determiners: we teachers, you guys
Universal Determiners: all, both
Distributive Determiners: each, every
Existential Determiners: some, any
Disjunctive Determiners: either, neither
Negative Determiners: no
Alternative-additive Determiners: another Positive Paucal Determiners: a few, a little, several.
Pre-determiners: a type of determiner that can come before a noun with no interceding preposition.
Examples: all, both, half.
Degree Determiners: many, much, few, little.
Sufficiency Determiners: enough, sufficient
Interrogative and Relative Determiners: which, what, whichever, whatever
The Noun Group
Noun Group
A noun group can contain:
- Determiners
- Premodifiers
- Postmodifiers
Unit I
Word Formation
The basic part of any word is the root; to it, you can add a prefix at the beginning and/or a suffix at the end to change the meaning. For example, in the word "unflattering," the root is simply "flatter," while the prefix "un-" makes the word negative, and the suffix "-ing" changes it from a verb into an adjetive(specifically, a participe).
English itself does not use prefixes as heavily as it once did, but many English words come from Latin, which uses prefixes and suffixes (you can use the word affix to refer either to a prefix or a suffix) quite extensively. For example, the words "prefix," "suffix," and "affix" themselves are all formed from "fix" by the use of prefixes:
"ad" (to) + "fix" (attached) = "affix"
"pre" (before) + "fix" = "prefix"
"sub" (under) + "fix" = "suffix"
English itself does not use prefixes as heavily as it once did, but many English words come from Latin, which uses prefixes and suffixes (you can use the word affix to refer either to a prefix or a suffix) quite extensively. For example, the words "prefix," "suffix," and "affix" themselves are all formed from "fix" by the use of prefixes:
"ad" (to) + "fix" (attached) = "affix"
"pre" (before) + "fix" = "prefix"
"sub" (under) + "fix" = "suffix"
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